CLAUSES CLASS

CLAUSES CLASS

Ifti Luthviana Dewi     

Clauses : to express a single idea/preposition

Clauses
major clause	minor clause
include a verbal phrase	without a verbal phrase
e.g. Rita has come         …… is not important	e.g. What a mess!         Yes please

 

MAIN AND SUBORDINAT CLAUSES

A.    Main clauses        :

-       It can stand on its own, with or without subordinate e clause.

e.g. I’m going to town

            I’m going to town when l’ve finished this job

-       Main clause include a verb and operates statement

-       Answer question “what happened or what is situation”

-       Main clause may be dependent in terms of contextual sequence on another main clause in the same sentence.

e.g. Jack fell down and broke his crown and Jill followed

1                                      2                                 3

123 are main clause, equal grammatical, but to reverse the sequence of clauses would misrepresent the order of events and represent an illogical situation

 

B.     Subordinate clause          :

-       Where a main clause is connected to another clause which is not main clause (dependent) 

e.g.

I’ve discovered why this light doesn’t work

         main                       subordinate

The captain announced that his team would score 300 runs

                Main                                      subordinate

a.       Nominal clause / Noun clause

-          They specify a concrete or abstract entity

-          Answer question ‘what’, ‘who’

-          Replaced in the sentence structure

e.g. How you do it is your business → It is your business

       I know what the answer is         →I know it

 

b.      Adjectival clause / relative clause

-          Serve to qualify a foregoing (antecedent) noun headword.

-          Answer question ‘which + antecedent headword?’

-          Typically introduced by a relative word in the form of a pronoun or adverb.

Relative Pronoun :

e.g. The people who led the march carried huge banner (which people?)

              The lady whose son is in China is over there (which lady?)

Relative adverb :

e.g. The building where / used to work falling down. (which building?)

              The antecedent is The building is nominal

-          Relative clauses could be by the relative word that in place of who or which

e.g. The law that you refer to has now been changed

 

-          Reduced relative clauses

Relative clause reduced because its omitted and without an auxiliary

-          Participle can be in present (-ing) or past (- en / ed)

e.g.  The people leading the march carried huge banner.

         The man beaten into 2 ^nd place had a broken finger.

         The time when she cooked spaghetti was the funniest

           → The time she cooking spaghetti was the funniest.

 

 

 

-          Restrictive & Non-restrictive relatives

-          Restrictive clause or defining the meaning of a noun headword, not separated by commas,

e.g. The student who sits in the back of the room asks a lot

-          Non Restrictive or non defining : adds additional information to a sentence. Usually a proper noun. It uses commas.

e.g. I want to thank Mark Smith, my father, for all of his support.

 

c.       Adverbial Clause

-          Subordinate clauses which fulfill an integral adverbial function mark the circumstances surrounding the main or superordinate clause.

-          They can specify time, place, reason, purpose, result, condition, con cession, manner, degree, preference.

e.g.

o   Well set off when Ruth arrives home                                                 time

o   He ran so well that he was selected for the country team                  result

o   If you were going away next week, would you let me know?           condition

o   Although the qualify is better, there is still room for improvement    concession

 

-          Sentential Relatives

-          The relative words do not just link to an antecedent noun but refer back to the whole of the antecedent main clause.

1.      Can be found as separate sentences

e.g. We still haven’t had an official reply. Which doesn’t help

2.      Wh word can be replaced by and this

e.g. There may be a rail strike, in which case I’ll go by car

→ There may be a rail strike, and in this case l’ll go by car

 

-          Line marking

| | = clause boundary which is not also a sentence boundary

CLAUSE STRUCTURE

A.    Subject

·         Participant in the Process/ Entity à a subject is related to specification of an entity/ thing, whether abstract or concrete, animate or inanimate. It also can be related to a nominal phrase or clause.

e.g. He is the only one who knows everything about this mystery. It may be replaced by a pronoun (it, he, she, we, you, they) and is subject to the interrogative words who?  or what?.

·         Agreement with Verb à e.g. He makes/ you make feel so happy; They are/ she is so lucky; The album has been released; The people are getting tired; etc.

·         Interrogating the Subject à the subject should answers these questions based on its agreement with the verb: who/ what does/did the verbing? Or who/ what is/was the complement? Or who/ what is/ was verbed?

e.g. Who makes this great job?

·         Interrogative Tag à related to a declarative sentence with a question tagged on to the end (isn’t/ wasn’t/ didn’t/ hasn’t it/ she/ he?).

e.g. You are wrong, aren’t you?; Jin read this newspaper, didn’t he; I don’t think that she loves you, does she?

·         Yes/ No Questions à those are also called closed questions, because there are only two answers yes/ no to response the questions.

e.g. Will you come to my wedding party?; Is he a good teacher?; Have they saw the new building?

·         Subject Case à when a sentence contains a mental process main verb and a non-finite subordinate clause, the subject which is a personal pronoun should be written in the objet/ complement case rather than the subject case. e.g. I want him to go away; we see them doing a wrong job; Angel loves me eating her food. When some subordinate clause containing to be, they should be expressed without verb at all. e.g. She finds him (to be) very difficult; they consider us (to be) the part of the committee.

·         Entity, feature, circumstance à when a subject names a participating entity/ participant/ thing, it should be expressed by a genitive phrase or possessive pronoun. e.g. Anna’s was the great group ever. When a subject refers to a feature, characteristic, property or quality, an attribute, it can be an attribute subject. e.g. Clean and clear is what we need; in good weather would be more clear to see. In addition, when it may refer to a circumstance and thus be a circumstance subject. e.g. Under the moonlight is an amazing view; by car would be nice; in the night would be best.

B.     Predicator and Finite

·         Types of Process:

a.       Material (action and process) e.g. wash, walk, drive, climb, dance

b.      Mental e.g. please, see, think, know, like

c.       Relational (linking verb) e.g. seem, become, appear, look, sound, be

·         Predicator and Finite Element

Predicator, sometimes called as a main verb in a sentence. Finite is a form of a verb that has a subject and the function is as the root of an independent clause (the locus of grammatical information such as gender, mood, person, number, tense, aspect).

e.g. Who has (F) killed (P) the woman?; Who bought (F/ P) the gold?; You did finish your tasks, didn’t you?

·         Mood:

a.       Declarative (subject followed by verb) e.g. I have loved this view; The boy has gone.

b.      Interrogative (finite auxiliary verb first, yes/ no or polar questions) e.g. Can you come this morning?

c.       Interrogative (wh type interrogative) e.g. Why do you leave her? When did you come? How did you do that?

d.      Imperative (verb is without subject) e.g. go away! Let’s go! Come here!

e.       Exclamatory e.g. What a beautiful creature! How well he runs!

C.     Complement

·         General Nature and Scope

Complement is that a word, phrase or clause that is needed to complete the meaning of a given expression.

·         Extensive Complement à it follows the verb and equivalent to the object. Two types of extensive complement:

a.       The equivalent of the direct object in traditional grammar. It responses the question who or what + did + the subject + verb?

e.g. What did you do?

b.      The equivalent of the traditional indirect object. It responses the question who or what + did + the subject + verb + (the direct object) + preposition?

e.g. Who did John give the flowers to?

·         Intensive Complement

Intensive complements relate to elements which refer back to and are thus co-referential with or intensive to aan antecedent subject (or subject). Eg. Mary is a doctor.

It is linked to the subject by a copular verb, and the process denoted by the verb is one of relation.

Direct complements espress two types of meaning :

1.      Identifying direct complement has an identifying relationship with the antecedent subject/ object.           

it responds to questions of the type ‘what/who/which/is the ...’ with a reply of the formula ‘X is Y’ or even ‘X=Y’ and is expressed by nominal phrase, which most frequently contains the definite articl, or by a subordinate clause.

Eg.       Jane is my doctor.

            This tape is what she needs.

            They elected Tom president.

            In instances where a copular verb is present, the complement is typically reversible with the co-referential element.  Eg. What she needs is this tape.

2.      Non-identifying direct complement merely assigns or ascribes a category or class membership to the preceding subject or object .it is typically respond to the question ‘what is the subject/object?’ with a reply of the formula ‘X is (an example) of Y’. The reply is expressed by an indefinite nominal phrase, typically containing an indefinite article when in the singular.

eg. Mary and John are teachers/ good teachers.

 

*both identifying and non-identifying complements typically respond to the questions ‘What is+subject?’ eg. ‘What is Jean?’ ‘Jean is a/ the secretary.’

 

Attributive complement is where the intensive complement assigns a (temporary or permanent) descriptive feature, quality, characteristic or property to the subject or object.it respond to the questions of the type ‘What is X like?’, ‘How is X?’, ‘What is the state/ condition of X?’. Eg. Jill is quite tall.

 

·         Additional Intensive Complement

·         Possesive complements are concerned with possesive/ genitive relationships and they answer the question ‘Whose/ which is the subject?’ with ‘X is Y’s.’ Eg. That writing is his.

·         Circumstantial complements specify the circumstances of the subject. It would respond ‘How/why/when/where is the subject?’. Eg. The fair is on a Tuesday.

 

·         Complement to Subject Or Subject

·         Intensive complements mark some form of relationship with he antecedent subject or object that they refer back to. In instances where the complement relates back to the subject, the link is provided through a copular verb. Eg. Mary is a director.

·         Yet, there may be no verbal linking to mark the copular relationship. Eg. The next punch knocked Tom senseless.

·         There is a parallel form in form in which the obbject and its intensive complement are linked by a verb. Eg. They elected Tom to be president.

 

·         Reflexive Complements

·         Eg. Jill has washed herself already.

      John is not himself today.

 

9.4 ADJUNCT

The adjunct (labelled A) is most frequently associated with adverbial and prepositional phrases, though occassionaly it may be realized by a nominal phrase.

Circumstantial adjuncts express the ideational circumstances surrounding the process, specifying manner, means, reason, time, place, duration, or frequency.

 

Time (location + source, duration, target)

They’re going away very early/ for three weeks.

 

Frequency/ quantity

They go there twice a year.

 

Place (location + source, route, destination)

Jane is going from London/ via Dover/ to Paris.

 

Reason/ cause

The match was abandoned because of the rain.

 

Manner

That blackbird sings beautifully.

 

Means

We travelled by train/ on the underground.

 

Circumstance

With the disappearance of his team-mate, he had no real chance.

 

Interpersonal adjuncts can have one of several interpersonal functions, they can :

1.      Sepcify the speaker’s own assessement of the probability of the central proposition.

2.      Express his/ her personal attitude towards or comment on the proposition.

3.      State the terms of reference in hich she/he is speaking/ the speaker’s referential stance.

4.      Focus on an aspect of the proposition by highlighting or emphasizing it or by playing it down.

5.      Check on te factuality of the content of the proposition or onthe terms/ style in which it is expressed.

(adjuncts under (1), (2), and (3) are typically referred to in the literature as comment or modal adjuncts)

 

They may mediate between the speaker and addressee :

a.       By checking through consultation

b.      By seeking to gain the addressee’s attention

c.       In the use of greetings and farewells to open and close discourse

d.      Through the use of politeness and courtesyformulae

 

Probability :

Jill is probably/ possibly home by now.

 

Attitude/ comment :

Fortunately/ luckily the weather stayed fine.

 

Terms of reference :

Financially/ politically/ strategically it’s been a good year.

 

Focus :

Bill is really/ definitely very keen to go.

 

Factuality/ content check :

He has, I think, tried very hard.

 

Terminology/ style check :

It wil be, as it were, the last opportunity.

 

Consultative check :

Mind you, she does work quickly.

 

Attention-getting :

Right then, are we ready?

 

Greeting/ farewell :

How do you do? , Goodbye.

 

Politeness/ courtesy :

Could you pass the salt, please.

 

 

Conjunctive adjuncts a.k.a ‘sentence adverbs/ adverbials’. They can have a conjunctive function in which they fulfil a connective role. Eg. He is nevertheless/ however always punctual.

Linking adjuncts or linkers : the logical link between clauses of equal grammatical status.

The difference between coordinating conjunctions and conjuncts : most conjuncts can have their position in the clause moved, the location of coordinating conjunctions is fixed.

Binding adjuncts or binders : subordinating conjunctions. Serve to bind together clauses unequalgrammatical status. Eg. David said that the tomatoes were nearly ripe.

 

9.5 Z ELEMENT

Z element was assigned to a semantically nominal element which is indetermminate as to subject or object status. It was applied in instances where the indeterminancy is due to the absence of a predicator within the structure. It is not possible to describe the phrase as being subject or object of a particular predicate.

 

Titles :

Three blind mice!

 

Vocative expressions :

Peter, what are you doing?

 

*NOM = neutral nominal

*the difference between NOM and nominative-subject or direct complement is that the latter have a relationship to a verbal process, whereas the former is independent of any relationships.

*vocative expressions = V/ VOC

 

9.6 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF CLAUSE STRUCTURE